Ancient proteins recovered from human fossils in northern China have given scientists new evidence of what Denisovans, an extinct group of human relatives, may have looked like. The discovery links the fossils to the Denisovan lineage and helps researchers identify a distinctive combination of skull and facial characteristics that could transform the understanding of human evolution across East Asia.
The findings, published on October 21, 2026, in the journal Nature, come from fossils discovered at Xujiayao, an archaeological site in northern China. Researchers identified a protein variant associated with Denisovans in two specimens and compared their anatomy with other prehistoric human remains.
The results suggest that Denisovans had a relatively low, broad skull, prominent brow ridges and a comparatively flat facial structure. However, the scientists emphasize that the preserved Xujiayao fossils do not include a complete face, meaning that aspects of Denisovan appearance must still be inferred from multiple specimens.
How Ancient Proteins Identified the Denisovan Fossils
Denisovans were first identified through ancient DNA recovered from a finger bone found in Denisova Cave in Siberia. Unlike Neanderthals, whose skeletal remains have been studied extensively, Denisovans initially had a limited fossil record that made their physical characteristics difficult to establish.
The Xujiayao site offers a particularly valuable opportunity to address that problem. Excavations conducted between 1976 and 1979 uncovered 20 ancient human fossils representing at least 16 individuals. The remains, including cranial fragments, jawbones and teeth, are estimated to be approximately 199,000 to 138,000 years old.
For the new study, researchers analyzed two specimens: a fragment of the parietal bone from the skull and part of a lower jaw. Using ancient proteomics, a technique that examines surviving proteins in old biological material, they recovered 18 endogenous proteins across the two samples.
Among the molecular findings was a variant known as COL1A2-996K, previously identified in Denisovan individuals through genetic or protein evidence. Neanderthals and modern humans have a different amino acid at this position.
The researchers also reconstructed an evolutionary relationship using 2,074 amino acid positions from eight proteins. In their analysis, the Xujiayao specimens clustered with other Denisovan-related individuals with a reported posterior probability exceeding 99%.
That result strongly supports the Denisovan identity of the two tested specimens. It does not mean every fossil recovered at Xujiayao was individually confirmed through molecular analysis, nor does it establish the exact relationships among different Denisovan populations.
The Chinese Academy of Sciences' report on the research explains that combining the molecular identification with anatomical comparisons allowed the team to investigate characteristics that may have been shared across Denisovan populations.
What the Fossils Reveal About Denisovan Appearance
The study describes Denisovans as having a distinctive combination of anatomical characteristics, rather than a single feature that could identify every member of the lineage.
Among the most notable findings are a low cranial profile, relatively broad braincase, nearly parallel sides of the skull when viewed from behind, a massive brow ridge and limited forward projection of the face and jaws.
Some features resemble those of Homo erectus, an earlier human lineage, including a relatively thick cranial vault. Other characteristics resemble those found in later human groups, including Neanderthals and modern humans.
This mixture is important because ancient human evolution did not follow a simple progression from one recognizable skull shape to another. Different lineages retained older anatomical characteristics while developing distinctive features of their own.
The findings also make it possible to discuss Denisovan facial structure more concretely. Comparisons involving Xujiayao and other Denisovan-associated fossils, including the Harbin skull, support the interpretation of a relatively low forehead, substantial brow region and flatter facial proportions.
Nevertheless, a fossil-based reconstruction is not an exact portrait. The Xujiayao remains do not preserve a complete face, and skeletal evidence alone cannot establish details such as hairstyle, skin pigmentation or every aspect of soft-tissue appearance.
Why the Discovery Could Change the Human Family Tree
The implications extend beyond how Denisovans looked. For decades, researchers have debated how to classify several groups of ancient human fossils discovered across East Asia.
Some specimens were previously assigned to separate species or evolutionary groups because their skulls and teeth displayed unusual combinations of characteristics. Xujiayao itself had been associated with the proposed species Homo juluensis.
With molecular evidence now linking Xujiayao to Denisovans, the researchers compared its anatomy with other East Asian fossils, including specimens from Harbin, Jinniushan, Dali and Hualongdong.
They identified overlapping characteristics that, in their interpretation, support grouping much of this material within the Denisovan lineage.
If supported by additional evidence, the proposal would suggest that Denisovans accounted for a substantial share of the diverse ancient human fossil record in East Asia, rather than representing only a small population known from scattered discoveries.
It could also help explain their apparent ability to occupy different environments. Denisovan-related evidence has been found in regions extending from northern Asia to the Tibetan Plateau and parts of Southeast Asia, pointing toward a geographically widespread and potentially diverse lineage.
But the broader classification remains an interpretation built partly on anatomical similarities. A fossil sharing several Denisovan-like traits is not automatically equivalent to a specimen whose lineage has been established through preserved DNA or proteins.
What Scientists Still Cannot Know About Denisovans
Despite the new evidence, important questions remain about the extent to which Denisovans shared a recognizable physical appearance.
The newly analyzed proteins provide strong support for identifying the Xujiayao specimens, but the molecular information was insufficient to establish their precise position relative to every other Denisovan population.
Researchers also have to account for variation within a lineage that may have occupied large areas of Asia over an extended period. Different Denisovan populations could have developed anatomical differences influenced by evolutionary history, population isolation and interactions with other human groups.
As discussed in Live Science's coverage of the discovery, paleoanthropologist Chris Stringer cautioned that Denisovan genetic diversity may have been accompanied by considerable differences in physical appearance.
That possibility matters when interpreting fossils from distant sites. A collection of shared skeletal traits can help researchers identify relationships, but it does not prove that all members of an extinct lineage looked alike.
Further protein studies, ancient DNA discoveries and better-preserved fossils could test whether the anatomical characteristics identified at Xujiayao appear consistently across other Denisovan populations. They may also clarify whether some fossils currently assigned to separate groups belong within the Denisovan lineage.
For now, the strongest result is the connection between molecular evidence and a substantial collection of ancient human skeletal remains. By linking Xujiayao to Denisovans, the study gives scientists a more detailed anatomical foundation for investigating an extinct branch of humanity that was once understood primarily through its genetic traces.
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